Generally speaking AI systems are built around automated
inference engines including forward reasoning and
backwards reasoning. Based on certain conditions ("if") the system infers certain consequences ("then"). AI applications are generally divided into two types, in terms of consequences: classifiers ("if shiny then diamond") and controllers ("if shiny then pick up"). Controllers do however also classify conditions before inferring actions, and therefore classification forms a central part of most AI systems.
Classifiers make use of
pattern recognition for condition matching. In many cases this does not imply absolute, but rather the closest match. Techniques to achieve this divide roughly into two schools of thought: Conventional AI and
Computational intelligence (CI).
Conventional AI research focuses on attempts to mimic human intelligence through symbol manipulation and symbolically structured knowledge bases. This approach limits the situations to which conventional AI can be applied. Lotfi Zadeh stated that "we are also in possession of computational tools which are far more effective in the conception and design of intelligent systems than the predicate-logic-based methods which form the core of traditional AI." These techniques, which include
fuzzy logic, have become known as soft computing. These often biologically inspired methods stand in contrast to conventional AI and compensate for the shortcomings of symbolicism.
[3] These two methodologies have also been labeled as
neats vs. scruffies, with neats emphasizing the use of logic and formal representation of knowledge while scruffies take an application-oriented heuristic bottom-up approach.
[4][
edit] Classifiers
Classifiers are functions that can be tuned according to examples, making them very attractive for use in AI. These examples are known as observations or patterns. In supervised learning, each pattern belongs to a certain predefined class. A class can be seen as a decision that has to be made. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set.
When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience. A classifier can be trained in various ways; there are mainly statistical and machine learning approaches.
A wide range of classifiers are available, each with its strengths and weaknesses. Classifier performance depends greatly on the characteristics of the data to be classified. There is no single classifier that works best on all given problems; this is also referred to as the "no free lunch" theorem. Various empirical tests have been performed to compare classifier performance and to find the characteristics of data that determine classifier performance. Determining a suitable classifier for a given problem is however still more an art than science.
The most widely used classifiers are the
neural network,
support vector machine,
k-nearest neighbor algorithm,
Gaussian mixture model,
naive Bayes classifier, and
decision tree.
[
edit] Conventional AI
Conventional AI mostly involves methods now classified as
machine learning, characterized by
formalism and
statistical analysis. This is also known as symbolic AI, logical AI,
neat AI and
Good Old Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI). (Also see
semantics.) Methods include:
Expert systems: apply reasoning capabilities to reach a conclusion. An expert system can process large amounts of known information and provide conclusions based on them.
Case based reasoning: stores a set of problems and answers in an organized data structure called cases. A case based reasoning system upon being presented with a problem finds a case in its knowledge base that is most closely related to the new problem and presents its solutions as an output with suitable modifications.
[5]Bayesian networksBehavior based AI: a modular method of building AI systems by hand.
[
edit] Computational intelligence
Computational intelligence involves
iterative development or learning (e.g., parameter tuning in
connectionist systems). Learning is based on
empirical data and is associated with non-symbolic AI,
scruffy AI and
soft computing. Subjects in computational intelligence as defined by
IEEE Computational Intelligence Society mainly include:
Neural networks: trainable systems with very strong
pattern recognition capabilities.
Fuzzy systems: techniques for
reasoning under uncertainty, have been widely used in modern industrial and consumer product control systems; capable of working with concepts such as 'hot', 'cold', 'warm' and 'boiling'.
Evolutionary computation: applies biologically inspired concepts such as
populations,
mutation and
survival of the fittest to generate increasingly better solutions to the problem. These methods most notably divide into
evolutionary algorithms (e.g.,
genetic algorithms) and
swarm intelligence (e.g.,
ant algorithms).
With
hybrid intelligent systems, attempts are made to combine these two groups. Expert inference rules can be generated through neural network or
production rules from statistical learning such as in
ACT-R or
CLARION (see References below). It is thought that the human brain uses multiple techniques to both formulate and cross-check results. Thus,
systems integration is seen as promising and perhaps necessary for true AI, especially the integration of symbolic and connectionist models (e.g., as advocated by
Ron Sun).
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